Mycorrhization in trees: ecology, physiology, emerging technologies and beyond.

Mycorrhization has been an integral part of plants since colonization by the early land plants. Over decades, substantial research has highlighted its potential role in improving nutritional efficiency and growth, development and survival of crop plants. However, the focus of this review is trees. Evidence have been provided to explain ecological and physiological significance of mycorrhization in trees. Advances in recent technologies (e.g., metagenomics, artificial intelligence, machine learning, agricultural drones) may open new windows to apply this knowledge in promoting tree growth in forest ecosystems. Dual mycorrhization relationships in trees and even triple relationships among trees, mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria offer an interesting physiological system to understand how plants interact with other organisms for better survival. Besides, studies indicate additional roles of mycorrhization in learning, memorizing and communication between host trees through a common mycorrhizal network (CMN). Recent observations in trees suggest that mycorrhization may even promote tolerance to multiple abiotic (e.g., drought, salt, heavy metal stress) and biotic (e.g. fungi) stresses. Due to the extent of physiological reliance, local adaptation of trees is heavily impacted by the mycorrhizal community. This knowledge opens the possibility of a non-GMO avenue to promote tree growth and development. Indeed, mycorrhization could impact growth of trees in nurserys and subsequent survival of the inoculated trees in field conditions. Future studies might integrate hyperspectral imaging and drone technologies to identify tree communities that are deficient in nitrogen and spray mycorrhizal spore formulations on them.

Comparative cryopreservation of indian wild orange (Citrus indica Tanaka) embryonic axes.

BACKGROUND: Indian Wild Orange (Citrus indica Tanaka) is an endangered and endemic species from northeast India for which effective ex situ conservation strategies, including embryo cryopreservation, are urgently needed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Desiccation tolerance and cryopreservation ability for embryonic axes of Citrus indica was determined using three techniques (air desiccation-freezing, PVS2 vitrification-freezing and encapsulation-dehydration-freezing). Success was assessed as survival and recovery in vitro. RESULTS: Successful cryopreservation of embryonic axes was achieved using all three methods, with the highest survival achieved when using air desiccation-freezing (90%) followed by encapsulation-dehydration (85%) and PVS2 vitrification cryopreservation (80%). Regeneration levels were lower than survival levels for all three proceedures. Post-cryo regeneration success was: encapsulation-dehydration (64%) > air desiccation-freezing (55%) > PVS2 vitrification (52%). CONCLUSION: Although there was relatively high post-cryopreservation recovery growth obtained using all the three techniques, the air desiccation-freezing technique is preferred, as it is a simple, practical and reproducible technique for the long-term cryobanking of this important wild species. Doi: 10.54680/fr23310110512.

Storage Behavior and Cryopreservation of Citrus cavaleriei, an Endangered, Cold-resistant Species of Northeast India with Exceptionally Large Seeds.

BACKGROUND: Ichang Papeda (Citrus cavaleriei H.Lév. ex Cavalerie) is a wild and endangered species of NE India that requires urgent preservation of its genetic resources. OBJECTIVE: To characterize the storage physiology of the seeds and to cryopreserve the embryo and embryonic axis (EA). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The morphology and storage physiology of the seeds were determined, and the cryopreservation of embryos and EA attempted using various techniques (viz., air desiccation-freezing, vitrification and encapsulation-dehydration). RESULTS: Weighing up to 4 g, seeds of Citrus cavaleriei are the largest known in the genus. Based on estimates using the seed coat ratio - seed mass (SCR-SM) model there was a very high probability of seed desiccation intolerance, which was validated physiologically; seeds lost vigour on drying below 30% moisture content (MC) and no seeds germinating after drying to <12% MC. Embryos and EAs could be air dried to 25-30% MC and cryopreserved with c. 50% survival. In contrast, EA optimally exposed to PVS2 (20 min) or encapsulated, sucrose pretreated (0.5 M, 24 h) and dehydrated (6 h) had c. 40% survival after cryopreservation. CONCLUSION: Citrus cavaleriei produces large, recalcitrant seeds that can, nevertheless, be cryopreserved as embryos or isolated EA after air drying to c. 25-30% MC; encapsulation-dehydration and vitrification provide alternative options for the cryopreservation of EA.

Regulatory developments in the conduct of clinical trials in India.

There has been a drop in clinical research in India following stringent conditions put in place by the Indian Supreme Court in 2013. The Court's orders came in the wake of irregularities highlighted in the conduct of clinical trials in the country. This paper highlights the steps taken by the Indian regulator, the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation to comply with these directions. These are of three kinds: strengthening regulatory institutions, protecting participant safety and creating regulatory certainty for sponsors and investigators. Examples include the large-scale training of Ethics Committees, framing detailed guidelines on compensation and audiovisual recording of the informed consent process, as well as reducing the time taken to process applications. It is expected that these measures will inspire confidence for the much-needed resumption of clinical research.

Long-term, large scale banking of citrus species embryos: comparisons between cryopreservation and other seed banking temperatures.

The long-term, large scale application of embryo cryopreservation has been assessed rarely and comparisons of viability loss for partially dried material with conventional seed bank storage conditions infrequently made. Five citrus species were cryopreserved following air drying of embryos (seed minus the testa) and embryonic axes: rough lemon (Citrus jambhiri), pommelo (C. grandis), mandarin (C. reticulata), citron (C. medica) and kagzi lime (C. aurantifolia). Although drying rates to c. 10 percent moisture content (MC) were approximately 10-times faster for isolated axes compared to embryos, the optimum MCs for cryopreservation were generally similar within a species, varying from c. 10 percent (C. jambhiri) to c. 20 percent (C. medica). Nonetheless, the hydration window for cryopreservation of the axis was usually wider than for the embryo. For all species, embryo or axis survival after cryopreservation ranged from 65 to 96 percent (C. medica axes), producing normal healthy seedlings from embryos and plantlets from axes without intervening callus growth in vitro. Whilst partially dried embryos of all five species survived fully liquid nitrogen vapour storage for 120 days, viability loss was rapid at -20 degree C, 5 degree C and ambient temperature, with a maximum interpolated half-life across these temperatures of c. 80 days for C. grandis at 5 degree C. The developed cryopreservation protocols were applied routinely to cryobank 377 accessions of Citrus germplasm from field genebanks, farmer's orchards, semi-wild and wild sources. After an average of 6.3 to 8.4 years cryo-storage, between 69 and 81 percent of accessions per species retained > 70 percent of the viability after desiccation. The results provide irrevocable evidence for the importance of cryopreservation for the banking of seeds of higher plants.

Attitude and opinion towards essential medicine formulary.

OBJECTIVE: The Delhi State Drug Policy was adopted in 1994 following which the first Essential Medicines List (EML) was developed in 1996. The Delhi State Essential Medicines Formulary was brought out in 1997. A need was felt to revise the formulary to match with the EML as the EML is renewed every 2 years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A survey was undertaken to elicit the opinions of the doctors practicing in the state on the usefulness of the formulary before revising and printing the updated version. The survey covered dispensaries, 10-20 bedded hospitals, 100-bedded hospitals and two tertiary care hospitals. Discussions were focused on questionnaires on attitudes toward adopting Essential Medicines Formulary using a 10-point scale. RESULTS: Of the 200 doctors approached, only 90 doctors completed the questionnaire. Sixty-nine respondents (76.6%) had received the copy of the formulary. Most practitioners welcomed the formulary and were satisfied with the coverage and selection of the medicines. Most respondents (76.9%) agreed that a well-developed formulary would improve the quality of the public health care system, although they had reservations about the authority, relevance and effect on professional autonomy. CONCLUSION: About 74% of the respondents used the formulary in clinical practice as a source of medicine information, which makes its regular revision necessary.

Addiction severity index composite scores as predictors for sexual-risk behaviors and drug-use behaviors in drug-using pregnant patients.

BACKGROUND: HIV sexual-risk and drug-use behavior predictors have been studied in non-pregnant but not pregnant drug-dependent populations. OBJECTIVE: Examine the ability of the ASI composite scores to predict HIV sexual- and drug-risk scores as well as the individual items of a modified version of the Risk Assessment Battery in drug-using pregnant women. METHODS: Pregnant women (N = 76) completing pretreatment ASI and HIV-risk questionnaires. RESULTS: The Legal composite score was the sole significant predictor of the sexual-risk score, with a 1 SD increase in the Legal composite score resulting in a 24% increase in sexual-risk, p < .001. The Medical, Drug, and Legal composite scores were each significant predictors of the drug-risk score, with a 1 SD increase resulting in a 31% decrease, and 121% and 73% increases, respectively, in drug-risk, all ps < .05. CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Drug-using pregnant women and their fetuses are vulnerable to the consequences of both sexual-risk behaviors and drug-use. The ASI may help screen such patients for HIV sexual-risk and drug-use behaviors as a first step in tailoring treatment to address these issues.

Methodology for surveillance of antimicrobials use among out-patients in Delhi.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE: Determining antibiotic use in the population is problematic in India, as there are no population level databases on prescriptions and over-the-counter sales. This study attempts to establish a methodology for surveillance of antibiotic use in the community. METHODS: Antibiotic use was monitored in fi ve municipal wards of Delhi, from January-December 2004. Thirty co-operative retail pharmacies were enrolled in Inderpuri (7), Karol Bagh (3), Patel Nagar (5), Rajinder Nagar (6) and Rajouri Garden (9); data on antibiotic use were collected in two ways. Firstly, bulk purchase data were collected by recording the quantities of all antibiotics purchased by these pharmacies every month over one year. Secondly, 15-25 'exit interviews' were conducted with patients leaving the enrolled pharmacies every month. Antibiotic use from bulk purchase data was measured as defined daily dose (DDD)/1000 population and from exit interview data as DDD/1000 patients visiting the pharmacy during data collection and also as per cent patients receiving an antibiotic. RESULTS: Bulk purchase and exit interview data showed some similar patterns of antibiotic use with a growing peak in the consumption of most antibiotics classes in the months of February and March. Use of the fluoroquinolone group (J01MA) was much higher than other antibiotic classes by both methods. Exit interviews revealed that 21 per cent of persons who visited the pharmacies bought antibiotics. Both measures of use from exiting patient interviews showed the same trend over time. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: Both drug use methods can be used to measure antibiotic use in the private retail pharmacies and outpatient department of public facilities. Surveillance of antimicrobial drug use from private retail pharmacies in a municipal zone in Delhi indicated overuse of antimicrobial drugs, particularly fluoroquinolines.

Two mouse retinal degenerations caused by missense mutations in the beta-subunit of rod cGMP phosphodiesterase gene.

We report the chromosomal localization, mutant gene identification, ophthalmic appearance, histology, and functional analysis of two new hereditary mouse models of retinal degeneration not having the Pde6brd1("r", "rd", or "rodless") mutation. One strain harbors an autosomal recessive mutation that maps to mouse chromosome 5. Sequence analysis showed that the retinal degeneration is caused by a missense point mutation in exon 13 of the beta-subunit of the rod cGMP phosphodiesterase (beta-PDE) gene (Pde6b). The gene symbol for this strain was set as Pde6brd10, abbreviated rd10 hereafter. Mice homozygous for the rd10 mutation showed histological changes at postnatal day 16 (P16) of age and sclerotic retinal vessels at four weeks of age, consistent with retinal degeneration. Retinal sections were highly positive for TUNEL and activated caspase-3 immunoreactivity, specifically in the outer nuclear layer (ONL). ERGs were never normal, but rod and cone ERG a- and b-waves were easily measured at P18 and steadily declined over 90% by two months of age. Protein extracts from rd10 retinas were positive for beta-PDE immunoreactivity starting at about the same time as wild-type (P10), though signal averaged less than 40% of wild-type. Interestingly, rearing rd10 mice in total darkness delayed degeneration for at least a week, after which morphological and functional loss progressed irregularly. With the second strain, a complementation test with rd1 mice revealed that the retinal degeneration phenotype observed represents a possible new allele of Pde6b. Sequencing demonstrated a missense point mutation in exon 16 of the beta-subunit of rod phosphodiesterase gene, different from the point mutations in rd1 and rd10. The gene symbol for this strain was set as Pde6bnmf137, abbreviated nmf137 hereafter. Mice homozygous for this mutation showed retinal degeneration with a mottled retina and white retinal vessels at three weeks of age. The exon 13 missense mutation (rd10) is the first known occurrence of a second mutant allele spontaneously arising in the Pde6b gene in mice and may provide a model for studying the pathogenesis of autosomal recessive retinitis pigmentosa (arRP) in humans. It may also provide a better model for experimental pharmaceutical-based therapy for RP because of its later onset and milder retinal degeneration than rd1 and nmf137.

Quality medicines for the poor: experience of the Delhi programme on rational use of drugs.

Prior to 1994, most Delhi hospitals and dispensaries experienced constant shortages of essential medicines. There was erratic prescribing of expensive branded products, frequent complaints about poor drug quality and low patient satisfaction. Delhi took the lead in developing a comprehensive Drug Policy in 1994 and was the only Indian state to have such a comprehensive policy. The policy's main objective is to improve the availability and accessibility of quality essential drugs for all those in need. The Delhi Society for the Promotion of Rational Use of Drugs (DSPRUD), a non-governmental organization, worked in close collaboration with the Delhi Government and with universities to implement various components of the policy. The first Essential Drugs List (EDL) was developed, a centralized pooled procurement system was set up and activities promoting rational use of drugs were initiated. In 1997, the Delhi Programme was designated the INDIA-WHO Essential Drugs Programme by the World Health Organization. The EDL was developed by a committee consisting of a multidisciplinary group of experts using balanced criteria of efficacy, safety, suitability and cost. The first list contained 250 drugs for hospitals and 100 drugs for dispensaries; the list is revised every 2 years. The pooled procurement system, including the rigorous selection of suppliers with a minimum annual threshold turnover and the introduction of Good Manufacturing Practice inspections, resulted in the supply of good quality drugs and in holding down the procurement costs of many drugs. Bulk purchasing of carefully selected essential drugs was estimated to save nearly 30% of the annual drugs bill for the Government of Delhi, savings which were mobilized for procuring more drugs, which in turn improved availability of drugs (more than 80%) at health facilities. Further, training programmes for prescribers led to a positive change in prescribing behaviour, with more than 80% of prescriptions being from the EDL and patients receiving 70-95% of the drugs prescribed. These changes were achieved by changing managerial systems with minimal additional expenditure. The 'Delhi Model' has clearly demonstrated that such a programme can be introduced and implemented and can lead to a better use and availability of medicines.

A socio-demographic profile of the population of Maldives.

PIP: This article presents a sociodemographic profile of the Maldive population. The Maldives are an archipelago of 1190 small islands in the Indian Ocean south of India. Only 201 of the islands are inhabited. Gross domestic product grew during 1984-94 at a rate of 8.77% per year based on a multi-sector economy. The 1990 population numbered 213,215. During 1985-90 the growth rate was 3.37%. The high growth rate is attributed to the sharp fall in mortality. The mortality rate in 1990 was 6/1000. 25.9% (55,130 persons) live in the capital city of Mali. 47% of population was aged under 15 years, and about 5% were aged over 60 years. Every 100 working-age individuals provided 108 persons with food, clothing, shelter, education, and health care. The sex ratio was 105 males per 100 females. Female mortality is higher than male mortality. The sex ratio favoring males increases with age. Almost 90% of females are married by the age of 30-34 years. The singulate mean age at marriage was 24 years for men and 18-19 years for women in 1990. 2% of men and 5% of women were widowed and 9% of women and 6% of men were divorced in 1990. Over 50% of ever married women aged 40 years and older were married at least four times. The frequency of marriage declined with an increase in educational level. 90% of males and 91% of females were literate in 1990. 11.3% of the population aged over 6 years had completed a primary education. 69.6% of males and 21.4% of females were economically active in 1990. Female employment declined during 1985-90. The crude birth rate was 43/1000 in 1990. Fertility peaked among women aged 25-29 years. Lifetime fertility averaged an estimated 7.53 children/woman. Infant mortality was an estimated 40 deaths/1000 live births in 1989. Estimated life expectancy at birth was 56.3 years in 1987. Most housing is permanent but lacks basic amenities, with the exception of electricity.^ieng

Factors affecting variations in fertility by states of India: a preliminary investigation.

PIP: This study examines differential fertility among states in India based on data from the 1992-93 India National Family Health Survey. It is argued that fertility will be lower among states with more women working outside the home, with more formally educated women, and with lower child mortality. This study only accounts for macrolevel intra-state variation in fertility. Bivariate findings indicate a negative relationship between fertility and the following education variables: the proportion of literate women, the proportion having some primary education, the proportion completing primary education, and the proportion completing a high school education. All female employment variables were positively, but not significantly, associated with fertility. There was a strong, significant positive relationship between fertility and child mortality. Multivariate findings indicate that the child mortality rate was the strongest factor affecting fertility, followed by work status and education. At least 18% of the intra-state variance in the total fertility rate was explained by the child mortality rate. A one-unit increase in the child mortality rate was associated with a 0.71% increase in the state fertility rate. 9% of the variance in intra-state fertility was explained by women's work outside the home. A 1% increase in women's participation outside the home was associated with a 0.74% decline in state fertility. The proportion of women with less than a primary education explained at least 7% of the intra-state variation in fertility. A 1% increase in female education was associated with a 0.83 decline in fertility.^ieng

Gastric acid study in patients operated on for perforated duodenal ulcer.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the acid secretory status of patients operated on for perforated duodenal ulcer, with or without prior history suggestive of acid-peptic disease. METHOD: Basal and peak acid output were measured in 48 patients with perforated duodenal ulcer who were treated by simple closure alone, 10 patients with uncomplicated chronic duodenal ulcer and 30 normal controls. Patients operated on for perforated duodenal ulcer were analyzed according to presence (or absence) and duration of prior history of acid-peptic disease. RESULTS: Peak acid output was similar in controls and patients with perforated duodenal ulcer with no prior symptoms. However, patients with prior symptoms had significantly higher peak acid output, similar to those with uncomplicated duodenal ulcer. CONCLUSION: Patients with perforated duodenal ulcer with no antecedent history of acid-peptic disease have normal gastric acid output. These patients may therefore have other etiological factors for their ulcers.

The quest for a herbal contraceptive.

PIP: An oral herbal contraceptive would allow couples control their fertility without consulting a health worker, which in turn would likely markedly increase the number of couples practicing family planning. Other advantages of such a contraceptive would include the familiarity rural people have with herbal medicines, the fewer side effects associated with herbal preparations, their ready availability from local sources, and protection of privacy. There are many references to plants in India with antifertility properties. Since 1966, the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has been conducting research to identify a herbal contraceptive, as have other organizations. Plants that have exhibited antifertility activity in clinical trials include Hibiscus rosasinensis (benzene extract of the flower petals suppresses implantation); Rudrapushpaka (extract of the flower petals prevents pregnancy); Embelia ribes (pregnancy prevention); Davcus carota, Butea monosperma, and Sapindus trifoliatis (seeds have an anti-implantation effect); and Mentha arvensis (leaves have anti-implantation effect). The Central Drug Research Institute in Lucknow, India, in collaboration with the US National Institutes of Health, the World Health Organization, and the ICMR confirm anti-implantation activity in Ferula jaeschkeana, Bupleurum marginatum, Lepidium capitatum, Caesalpinia sepiaria, Lonicera japonica, Juniperus communis, Lotus corniculatus, Lamium allum, and Acacia farnesiana. In China, scientists have evaluated the cotton-seed extract gossypol as a male contraceptive. They are now studying the possible antifertility effect on men of the plant Tripterygium wilfordii. From all the aforementioned plants as well as others under investigation, three possible types of contraceptives could be developed: an anti-ovulatory contraceptive; a postcoital contraceptive; and a male contraceptive. Some obstacles to their development include difficulties in obtaining adequate quantities of the herbs, a shortage of clinical pharmacologists and clinicians interested in conducting clinical trials, and lack of long-term financial support.^ieng